Flight instruction; Simulated instrument flight and certain flight tests

In plain English

An aircraft used for flight instruction must have functioning dual controls (with a limited throwover-wheel exception for instrument instruction). For simulated instrument flight ("hood work"), you need a safety pilot who holds at least a private certificate with the appropriate category/class, the aircraft needs dual controls, and there must be adequate vision forward and to each side (or an observer).

Key points

• Instructional aircraft must have functioning dual controls (throwover-wheel exception for instrument instruction with a private-or-higher pilot manipulating).
• Simulated instrument flight requires a safety pilot (≥ private, appropriate category/class).
• The aircraft needs dual controls and adequate vision for the safety pilot (or a separate observer).

Common pitfalls

• Logging hood time without a properly rated safety pilot and an adequately equipped aircraft.

Summary: Instructional aircraft need functioning dual controls, and simulated instrument flight requires a qualified safety pilot and adequate vision, with limited throwover-wheel exceptions.